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Aaron Beck's View of Depression- negative thoughts, generated by dysfunctional beliefs are typically the primary cause of depressive symptoms. A direct relationship occurs between the amount and severity of someone's negative thoughts and the severity of their depressive symptoms. In other words, the more negative thoughts you experience, the more depressed you will become.
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Absolute threshold – minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus half of the time.
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Achievement vs. aptitude tests – achievement tests what you already know. Aptitude tests what you are capable of learning.
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Action vs. resting potential need
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Acuity-vision – the sharpness of vision.
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Afferent Neurons vs. Efferent Neurons need
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Agonist vs. antagonist chemicals need
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Ainsworth Strange Situation (Paradigm) need
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Albert Bandura: major view on learning and Bobo Doll experiment need
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Albert Ellis - Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
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Alfred Adler - inferiority complex
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Algorithm – methodical and logical way to solve a problem. Takes longer but is most accurate. Contrasts with heuristics. Ex: Trying to find a four letter word by guessing AAAA, AAAB, AAAC, etc.
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All-or-nothing law (all-or-none) of neural firing need
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Altruism – unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
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American Psychological Association (APA) need
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Amnesia (anteriograde & retrograde) – memory loss.
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Androgyny – having components of both masculinity and femininity. No longer a mental health disorder. Person associated with it is Sandra Bem.
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Apparent motion need
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Arousal need
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Asch's conformity study (line segments) need
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Attachment – emotional tie with another person. Evident in young kids seeking closeness to a caregiver and being distressed when separated.
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Attribution theory – study of processes where people ascribe motives to their own and others’ behavior. Can be internal/personal or external/circumstantial. People associated with it are Kelley and Heider.
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Aversive conditioning (good or bad?) need
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Aversive conditions
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Babinsky response need
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Behavior as being adaptive need
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Bell curve (normal distribution) need
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Benjamin Worf's theory of linguistic relativism (determinism) need
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Binocular disparity need
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Blind spot – the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye. This creates a blind spot because no receptor cells are there.
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Blood brain barrier need
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Brain: what part do we share with animals? How do we differ?
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Brainstorming need
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Broca's aphasia (expressive) located in left frontal lobe – an impairment of speaking. Broca’s area controls language expression and directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
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Bystander intervention: factors that influence it
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Catharsis – emotional release. Hypothesis: releasing aggresive energy relieves aggressive urges.
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Cannon's critique of James-Lange theory need
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Carl Rogers: person (client) centered therapy
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Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's theory need
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Chaining need
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Character disorders : major ones
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Chunking – organizing material into familiar, manageable units. Helps with memory. Ex: 14921776190619422001 is better remembered as 1492, 1776, 1906, 1942, 2001.
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Classical conditioning (& can you distinguish it from operant conditioning) need
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Clever Hans experiment need
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Cognitive dissonance – conflict arises when a person has contrasting cognitions (thoughts).
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Color blindness: kinds need
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Complementary colors need
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Conflicts: four kinds need
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Control group – the experimental group receiving no treatment.
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Cooper's research on visual processing (using cats) need
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Correlation coefficients need
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Cortexes of the brain : major ones needs
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Cross cultural studies
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Cross sectional studies – study where people of different ages are compared with each other.
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Crystallized intelligence – acquired knowledge and verbal skills; increases with age.
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CS-CR-UCS-UCR
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Daniel Goleman's views on emotional intelligence
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David McClelland's achievement motivation studies
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Defense mechanisms: major ones
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Deindividuation
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Deinstitutionalization
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Dendrite (purpose of) – receive messages (from axons) and conduct impulsives toward the cell body.
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Depression: tricyclic antidepressants are most widely used to treat it
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Descriptive vs. inferential statistics
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Determinism
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Developmental psychology
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Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( purpose and limits) – also known as the DSM. Widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.
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Difference threshold (jnd) – minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection half of the time. Also called just noticeable difference (jnd).
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Discrimination (in learning theory and race relations)
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Displacement
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Dissociative disorders
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Divergent vs. convergent thinking – divergent thinking: imagines multiple possible answers to a problem (i.e. What words began with the letter S?). Convergent thinking: only one answer is correct (tested by intelligence tests).
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Dominant responses (aided by social facilitation)
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Down's syndrome
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Dream analysis
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Drives
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Ebbinghaus' research on memory – learned lists of nonsense syllables to experiment with memory and rehearsal. He found that learning meaningful information was easier than the nonsense syllables. Made retention and forgetting curves. Proactive and retroactive interference associated with his ability to recall the lists.
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Echoic memory – sensory memory of auditory stimuli - sounds and words can be recalled within three or four seconds.
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Effects of marijuana
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Eidetic memory
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Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT) – biomedical therapy for patients with severe depression. An electric current is sent through their brain while anesthetized.
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Elizabeth Loftus' research on eyewitness testimony
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Endocrine organs and hormones secreted by them
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Endorphins – natural opiate. Neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.
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Engram
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Episodic memory (a.k.a. flashbulb)
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Equity theory of relationships
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Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
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Ethics of testing
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Ethnocentrism
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Expectancy theory (aka mental set)
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Experiment: be able to design one
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False consensus effect
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Feature (signal) detector cells: Hubel & Wisel's research on visual processing
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Feature analysis
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Feral children
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Fetal alcohol syndrome: characteristics
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Figure - ground - phenomenon
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Flynn effect
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Foot-in-the-door phenomenon – tendency for people who first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
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Formal operations – people think logically about abstract concepts.
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Fovea – central focal point in the retina - cones cluster here.
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Francis Galton's research
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Free association – psychoanalysis - exploring the unconscious. Person says whatever comes to mind.
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Frequency polygon
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Freudian dream analysis: two levels of interpretation
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Freud's stages of psychosexual development
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Frustration-aggression hypothesis
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Functional fixedness – tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.
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Fundamental attribution error – tendency for observers of another person to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition. Ex: if someone is acting grouchy, you might assume that she's a grouchy person, even though she might just be having a bad day.
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Galvanic skin response (GRS)
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Ganglia
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Gansfeld Procedure
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Gate Control Theory of Pain
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Generalizability of a study
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Genotype & phenotype
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Gestalt theory
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Glial cells
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Group therapy (advantages of )
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Groupthink
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Gustatory sense: detects only sweet, sour, salty, bitter
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Habituation – decreasing responses with repeated tests. Using the same test over again decreases accuracy.
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Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Response – also known as General Adaptation Syndrome or GAS: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.
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Haptic memory
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Harry Harlow's research with surrogate mothers – worked with attachment. Had a monkey infant separated from its mother at birth. Two fake mothers were constructed: one was made of wire cage with a wooden head and a feeding bottle, and the other was made of terrycloth with a soft head. The infant liked the terry cloth mother more, even though it did not have a feeding bottle. Attachment happens through touch—the soft mother became a safe haven and secure base for the monkey. Contact is key.
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Hawthorne Effect (observer bias) – historical development of I/O psychology. Suggests that any workplace change (i.e. research study) makes people feel important and improves their performance. People associated with it are Roethlisberger and Dickson.
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Heuristics: major types
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Hierarchy of needs (Maslow) can you put them in order?
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High vs. low self-monitors
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Hindsight bias
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Histogram
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Homeostasis – tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state, such as body temperature or glucose level. This job belongs to the hypothalamus.
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Howard Gardner's view of multiple intelligence
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Hue – dimension of color determind by a light's wavelength. British term for color.
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Hybrid
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Hypnosis: major theories of
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Hypothalamus – located below the thalamus in the brain. Maintains homeostasis. Directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) and helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. Is also linked to emotion.
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Id, ego, superego
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IDEAL (strategy for solving problems)
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Identical twin research
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Identification vs. internalization (Freudian terms)
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Illusory correlation – perception of a relationship where none exists.
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Imaging techniques: PET, CAT, MRI, FMRI
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Imprinting – some animals form attachments during a critical period when they are very yound. Ex: if you are the first thing a ducks sees after hatching, it will think you are its mother.
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Incentives
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Independent/dependent variables
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Induced motion
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Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
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Industrial (organizational) psychology
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Ingroup and outgroup bias
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Inner ear - vestibular sense
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Instinct
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Instrumental - operant conditioning
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Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) – mental age divided by actual age, multipliled by 100. For instance, the IQ of someone with a mental age of 12 and an actual age of 10 is 120, because (12/10) * 100 = 120.
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Intelligence tests (major kinds used)
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Interference (proactive vs. retroactive) – also known as retroactive/proactive inhibition. Retroactive interference: new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier. Proactive interference: old information makes it harder to recall newer information.
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Internal consistency reliability
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Internalization
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Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
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James-Lange theory of emotions – to experience emotion, you must be aware of your physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. Emotions are identified based on physical response. Ex: My heart is beating rapidly and there are cold chills on my back --> I must be scared.
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John Garcia's ideas on the limits of conditioning
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Just-world phenomenon – people tend to believe that the world is just--people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
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Karen Horney's views on development
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Kinesthetics
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Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning
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Kubler Ross' stages of dying
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L-dopa
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Learning curve
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Limbic system: structures and function
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Linear perspective
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Linkage analysis
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Lithium (bipolar disorders) – mood stabilizers used to treat bipolar disorder, manage acute manic phases, and reduce relapse. Can be easily toxic. Also called Eskolith and Lithobid
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Localization of sound (how is it done? Why are two ears needed?)
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Long-term potentiation (LTP) – strengthening of a sypnapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Neural basis for learning and memory. Less prompting is needed to release the neurotransmitter.
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Longitudinal study – a research method which investigates behavior as subjects age.
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Loss of information from short term memory
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Martin Seligman's "learned helplessness"
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Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode
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Measures of variability: range and standard deviation
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Memory: kinds ( sensory, short-term, long-term)
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Mental age – the age that is applied to a level of intelligence. Made by Binet. Ex: someone who is mentally retarded may be 20 years old, but they will still have the mental age of a five year old.
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Mental set – tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it was successful in the past.
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Metacognition
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Method of Loci – a memory technique in which a person imagines herself moving through a familiar series of locations, associating each place with a visual representation of the topic that needs to be remembered. To retrieve the image, mentally revisit the location.
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Milieu therapy
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Test: use for what? – a personality test used to identify emotional disorders, or for other screening purposes.
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Misinformation effect – misleading information is incorporated into one's memory of an event.
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Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
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Monocular vs. binocular depth cues
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Motion aftereffect
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Motion parallax
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Myelin sheath: where and purpose? – layer of fatty tissue that encases neuron fibers. Increases the speed of neural impulses.
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Narcissism
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Nature vs. nurture controversy – controversy over which contributes more to the development of traits and behaviors: genes or experience?
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Nervous system: major parts – sympathetic nervous system: arouses the body, mobilizing energy in stressful situations. Ex: accelerates heartbeat, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion.
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Neuron: three basic parts
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Neurotransmitters: major kinds – Acetylcholine (ACh) - enables muscle action, learning and memory. Dopamine - influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Serotonin - affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Norepinephrine - helps control alertness and arousal. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) - inhhibitory neruotransmitter. Glutamate - excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory.
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Newborn baby reflexes
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Next-in-line-effect
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Normative social influence
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Norms
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Novelty preference
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Obesity (role of hypothalamus)
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Obsessive Compulsive Disorders (OCD)
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Occipital lobe
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Oedipal conflict – According to Freud, boys have sexual desires for their mothers, and feelings of jealousy and hatred toward their father.
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One eye problem - what you couldn't do well if you had only one eye
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Operationalizing a definition
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Opponent-process theory of emotions
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Opponent-process theory of visual processing (afterimages) – opposing retinal processes enable color vision (red–green, yellow–blue, white–black). For instance, some cells are stimulated by red and inhibited by green—this lets you see color. When you stare at a green square for a while, you tire your green response. Thus, when you look at a white square, you see green’s opponent color, red. Only the red part of the red–green pairing will fire normally.
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Optic disc
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Optic nerve
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Optimistic Explanatory Style
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Pancreas
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Panic attacks (& what's the best treatment?)
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Paradoxical sleep: why is REM called this? – Called paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
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Paresis
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Perceptual constancy (size, color, shape)
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Perceptual set
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Personal space
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Perspectives in psychology (major ones)
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
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Phi phenomenon
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Phonemes vs. morphemes
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Photoreceptors
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Piaget's stages of cognitive development -- Four cognitive stages: 1) Birth to 2 yrs - sensorimotor stage - experience world with senses; 2) 2 yrs to 7 yrs - preoperational stage - worked with language, not logic; 3) 7 yrs to 11 yrs - concrete operational stage - worked with logic; 4) 12 yrs to adult - formal operational - abstract reasoning.
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Pineal gland (function and what makes it unique?)
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Pitch
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Pituitary gland
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Plasticity
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Positive and negative symptoms (in mental disorders)
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Positive reinforcement
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Post traumatic stress disorder
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Premack principle
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Primacy effect – facts, impressions, or items that are presented first are better learned/remembered than material presented later. Also called law of primacy, principle of primacy.
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Primary vs. secondary reinforcers
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Projective tests: TAT & Rorschach
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Prosocial behavior: what is it and give an example
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Proximity (effects on relationships)
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Prototype
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Punishment: why it may not be effective and might backfire
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Rational Emotive Therapy
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Reality principle (function of ego)
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Recessive vs. dominant genes
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Reflex arc
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Reliability vs. validity in testing
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REM sleep – Rapid Eye Movement sleep.Recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams occur. Also called paradoxical sleep.
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Repression
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Reticular formation: related to sleep, arousal, attention
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Retinal disparity (a.k.a. binocular disparity)
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Robert Rescorla's findings on conditioning
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Rods and cones (structures & differences)
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Rooting reflex – when touched on the cheek, a newborn baby will turn its head toward the touch and search for a nipple with its mouth.
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Sample
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Scatterplot: most often used to plot correlations
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Schedules of reinforcement (5 kinds - which are most effective?)
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Schema
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Schizophrenia
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Selective attention – the focus of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. Cocktail party effect—able to focus on one voice in a roomful of voices.
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Self-efficacy
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
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Self-serving bias
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Semantic memory
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Serial position effect
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Set point
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Sexual characteristics (primary vs. secondary)
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Sexual identity vs. gender identity
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Shaping
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Signal detection theory
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Sleep disorders: major kinds
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Sleeper effect
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Social cognitive theory
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Social exchange theory
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Social facilitation – presence of others boosts performance. Ex: people do better when racing against others than when racing against the clock.
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Social loafing – tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when working towards attaining a common goal (as opposed to working as individuals)
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Social trap
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Somatoform disorders: major kinds
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Somatosensory cortex: location and used for what sense?
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Stages of learning (acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, etc.) – Extinction: the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response.
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Standard deviation
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Stanley Milgram's experiment with obedience – Social psychologist, worked with obedience. In his famous experiments, a "teacher" administers a shock to a "learner" whenever the learner gets a question wrong. The electric shocks were staged--the teacher thought they were real, but the learner knew they were not. With more wrong answers, the shocks increase in voltage. The teacher has to choose between obeying the experimenter supervising the teacher, who urges them to continue, or the learner who is in apparent pain, who begs them to stop. 63% of men proceeded to the final 450 volt shock. Teachers were most likely to obey when 1) the experimenter was nearby and with presitigious affiliation (i.e. Yale professor), 2) the victim was distanced or depersonalized, and 3) when they were told that no other teacher defied the experimenter
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Stanley Schachter's Two Factor Theory
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Stereotype
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Stimulus generalization
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Stranger anxiety
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Syllogism
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Systematic desensitization: a.k.a. a kind of counterconditioning
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Tay-Sachs disease
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Testable hypothesis
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Thalamus (& what sense doesn't get routed through here?)
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
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Thyroid gland
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Tip-of-the-tongue effect
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Token economy
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Tourette's syndrome
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Tragedy of the commons
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Transduction
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Turner's syndrome (X with missing chromosome)
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Two kinds of deafness: Conductive and nerve
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Validity: different kinds – concurrent validity: Assessing a test’s validity by comparing its results with a different but related test at the same point in time.
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Vestibular sense
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Visual cliff
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Water balance (role of hypothalamus)
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Weber's law -- To be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a contact minimum percentage, as opposed to a constant amount.
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Wernicke's aphasia (receptive) located in left temporal lobe – impairs understanding. Wernicke’s area controls language reception and comprehension.
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Wilder Penfield's research on the brain
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Wilhelm Wundt (structuralism)
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William James (functionalism)
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Yerkes/Dodson Arousal Law
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Zajonc's "Mere Exposure Effect" – an increase of exposure to something leads to a greater liking of it.
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Zimbardo's prison experiment
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